A monarch’s annual lifecycle goes through upwards of 4 generations during migration. Migration north (and east for western monarchs) happens typically between March and August each year. During migration, an adult female will lay eggs on the underside of young healthy milkweed leaves, hatch, eat, crystallize and repeat. As summer progresses, roughly in the third or fourth generation the western monarch will eventually turn south and west to return to their overwintering sites on the California coast (and in some cases Mexico).

All species of milkweeds are characteristic of the milky sap in their stems and leaves which contain a lethal brew of cardenolides (heart poison). If grazed, animals and insects are served a warning with distasteful, hairy leaves. If ingested, a grazer is confronted with vomiting and potentially death in higher doses. The negative effect on agricultural livestock like sheep and cows led farmers and agriculturalists toward eradication efforts. Over time, the combination of increased land use and herbicide led to a significant decline in available milkweed, with monarch populations following suit.

The handful of insects that do eat the plant are all incredibly colorful which in-turn serves as a warning to their predator’s (Monarch Joint Venture, 2024). If a monarch caterpillar were to be eaten it’s predator will encounter a nasty taste and hopefully drop it’s prey. For the majority of insects like bees, moths and other butterflies the main attraction to milkweed is the flower which provides nectar during a time in the summer when most other flowers have spent. For each type of milkweed found, the flowers are showy, intricate and are certainly worth a close-up look.

Milkweed has proved useful to people as well. Ethnobotanists have documented historic and current use of the plant in fiber, food and medicine in the United States and Canada. Milkweeds supply tough fibers for making cords, ropes as well as for course cloth. Native Californian tribes use the plant for all the purposes listed above. In one documented case of a Sierra Miwok woven deer net, the trap measured 40 feet in length and contains some 7,000 feet of cordage, which would have required the harvest of 35,000 plant stalks. Among Californian Native tribes, the most common documentation of use was to obtain a kind of chewing gum from the sap of showy milkweed (A. speciosa). The sticky white sap is heated slightly until it becomes solid, then added to salmon or deer gristle (Stevens, M., 2006).

The decline of wild milkweed plants as well as the majestic monarch butterfly has spawned a cultivation movement to encourage everyday gardeners to plant. If you reader, would like to cultivate milkweed in your pollinator garden, make sure to plant it in a location where it can expand. In suitable conditions, milkweed can outcompete other plants and on occasion infrastructure such as plant boxes or walkways. A second consideration is where the location of where you’d like to plant in accordance with the migratory path of the monarch. If you are in a costal overwintering area, it is more beneficial to monarchs to plant nectar plants versus nursery plants. A planting of A. speciosa may falsely signal that they are in a location fit for reproduction leading to a disruption in their migration cycle.

When you’ve picked the best species for your area you can propagate milkweed from seed or rhizome. Collect seeds from pods once they have ripened, but prior to splitting open. Experienced cultivators planting in high elevation or colder climates have documented higher success rates with seed by using a cold treatment for three months and then planting directly into the ground the first fall after collection (Stevens, M., 2006). Propagation by rhizome is also easy and reliable. Create cuttings when the plant is dormant and make sure the rhizome has at least one forming root bud. Success is also dependent on on timing. Harvest or divide plants at the beginning of the rainy season and plant them in the ground by late fall so they can develop enough root growth to survive the winter. Irrigation in the first year will improve survival, and by the second year the root system should be well enough established so plants will survive on their own (Stevens, M., 2006).

Citations

1. DeCamp, K., Kierstead. J., Knorr, J. (2021) Wildflowers of California’s Klamath Mountains (Michael Kaufmann) (Second Edition). Backcountry Press.
2. Kauffmann, M., Garwood, J. (2022) The Klamath Mountains: A natural history. (First Edition). Backcountry Press.
3. Western Monarch Milkweed Mapper (2024) Western Monarch Biology: The monarch Life Cycle
4. Monarch Joint Venture (2024) Monarch Annual Lifecycle
5. Stevens, M. (2006) NRCS Plant Guide: Showy Milkweed (Asclepias speciosa) United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service.
6. How to Grow and Care for Common Milkweed (thespruce.com)

References

Ciesla, B. (2015) Milkweeds: Fascinating Plants, Home to Colorful Insects Colorado State University Extension Master Gardener in Larimer County.

Stevens, M. (2006) NRCS Plant Guide: Showy Milkweed (Asclepias speciosa) United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Asclepias sp. Milkweed Native American Ethnobotany Data Base. A Database of Foods, Drugs, Dyes and Fibers of Native American Peoples, Derived from Plants.

US Forest Service: Monarch Butterfly Biology United States Department of Agriculture US Forest Service

Serpentine milkweed (Asclepias solanoana) Calscape California Native Plant Society

This perennial plant’s bloom is prolific and prolonged typically beginning in March and lasting sometimes into August making it of special value to native bees, butterflies, and other important pollinators who are attracted by the bright yellow sunflower-like pedals. Due to this wildflower’s showy nature as well as its excellent tolerance to drought, it makes for a terrific addition to cultivated butterfly gardens. It can be propagated by seed, cuttings or by inquiring to purchase from your local nursery [2].

The woolly sunflower has been recorded to be used by the people of the Miwok tribe (California) to sooth aching parts of the body by making a poultice of the leaves; the Skagit (Washington) rub the leaves on skin to prevent chapping; and the Chehalis (Washington) use the dried flowers as a love charm [3].

References

1. Wikipedia, Eriophyllum lanatum
2. NRCS, USDA.gov, Propagation Protocol Eriphyllum lanatum
3. Native American Ethnobotany Database 2011, Eriphyllum lanatum

• USDA Plant Guide
• eFlora.com, Eriophyllum lanatum – Woolly eriophyllum
• iNaturalist photo gallery, Eriophyllum lanatum vir. grandiflourm

Water fern (Azolla filiculoides)

There are various native plant species that cover the surface of stagnant or slow-moving water. One of these species is called water fern (Azolla filiculoides). Not to be confused with algae, Azolla is an aquatic vascular plant with a very shallow root system that grows on the water surface rather than in the water column. True to its name, it is a type of fern. Typically, the plant is bright or dark green, making the water appear to be covered in “pond scum”, but this plant is anything but scum. As a stress reaction, Azolla can turn a deep red-amber color, appearing dead or dormant. Despite the discreet and unassuming nature of this unusual plant, it has some mind-blowing properties, including the ability to purify water and fix nitrogen.

So how does Azolla affect our ecology here along the Trinity River? By covering slower moving bodies of water like ponds and backwater areas, it helps regulate water temperatures and provides habitat for cover-loving species. By the same mechanism, it also decreases habitat for mosquitos. It also serves as a food source for a wide variety of wildlife, from western pond turtles to waterfowl. These properties, combined with the ability to fix nitrogen and remove pollutants from water, make this easily over-looked water fern an important constituent of riparian and aquatic habitats.

California buckeye (Aesculus californica)

California buckeye (Aesculus californica) is a fast-growing species that grows below 4000 feet in dry slopes, canyons, and stream edges. Various species of buckeye grow throughout the world, but this is the only species that grows in California. Here in Trinity County, it seems to prefer the cooler and wetter parts of the region, mostly growing downriver towards Willow Creek or along moist riverbanks. They are a summer deciduous species and start to lose their leaves as early as July, turning crinkly and yellow and creating a seasonal stand-out display amongst the surrounding green riparian foliage.

Described as either a small tree or a large shrub, California buckeyes usually have multiple, gnarled trunks with smooth grey bark. One of the earliest riparian trees to leaf out in the spring, they ornately decorate the still dormant riparian area with large, dark green, palmately compound leaves. Soon thereafter, impressive clusters of whitish-pink flowers explode from the backdrop of tropical-looking leaves. Each cluster is primarily composed of male flowers, but towards the tip are a few functionally female flowers. This means that though each inflorescence contains several dozen blooms, they only manage to produce 1-2 seeds, which are rather large and somewhat resemble chestnuts (hence one of this plant’s common names, “horse chestnut”).

Buckeye seeds are known for being toxic to non-native bees. This is due to a neurotoxic glycoside called aesculin, which causes hemolysis (rupturing) of red blood cells. This not only affects hive species like honeybees – who take the pollen back to the hive and inadvertently poison their own queen – but it also affects humans and fish, causing symptoms like diarrhea, muscle weakness, lack of coordination and even paralysis. Thanks to coevolution, native bees and pollinators are unaffected by aesculin and savor the sweet nectar and pollen.

Native Americans have a cultivated relationship with buckeye seeds. In the Hupa language, the word for buckeye is la:whe’, and the seeds are believed to be a food of the pre-human immortals (k’ixinay). With significant preparation (including repetitive leaching, boiling, and pounding), the seeds become edible as flour or meal, similarly to acorns.

California buckeyes are drought tolerant, fast growing, and highly effective reproductively, making them extremely well adapted to their environment. To propagate some on your own property, simply take a seed and plant it about 1” deep – it will rapidly develop a large and robust taproot and can grow up to 10” a year, making a lovely landscaping attraction.

California hazel (Corylus cornuta subsp. californica)

California hazel is a native shrub that grows in the moist shade of forest understory and riparian areas. The leaves are soft and fuzzy, and fall off during the winter (deciduous). During the winter months, the plants produce male flowers, called catkins, along with quaint red female flowers on the same plant. Once pollinated, the female flowers will very slowly develop into a pair of seeds. The seed husks are extremely bristly (like fiberglass) and have long beaks to them, giving this plant one of its common names, “beaked hazelnut”.

Hazelnuts don’t ripen until the later summer/early fall, and often, just one (or none) of each pair will make it all the way to maturity. Hazelnuts are tantalizing food stuffs for an assortment of critters, from insects, to small rodents, to birds, to large mammals. Humans are no exception – native hazelnuts roasted on the woodstove make a delicious winter treat. To harvest, however, we humans have to use our wit to outcompete the hungry critters, who will devotedly devour every hazel in sight if given the opportunity.

The historical relationship between humans and hazels is much more multi-faceted than mere consumption. Native Americans who share a range with this plant, including the Hupa, Yurok, Wintu and Chimiariko tribes have long utilized hazels in basketry and fiber-making. In the Hupa language, there is a different word for each of these applications. K’ila:jonde’ translates to ‘hazel’ or ‘hazelnut’, while tł’ohsch’il’e:n means ‘hazel brush switches’ or ‘hazel bush’. If separated from the plant, a hazel stick itself is referred to as miq’ik’itł’oy’, and the verb for twisting a hazel withe to make it flexible is k’iq’e:n.

California hazels are just one of the important characters that constitute our local flora; healthy ecosystems are comprised of a great diversity of native plant species. Stay tuned to learn more about local native plants and their ecological roles!

Photo top left: A hazelnut growing on the shrub. An unfertilized/undeveloped hazelnut is seen on the left.

Photo top middle: This old, twisted hazel branch would not be suitable for basket making.

Photo top right: An unripe hazelnut has been knocked onto the ground, but amazingly has not been consumed yet.

Photo bottom left: An immature hazelnut that has been foraged by local wildlife.

Photo bottom right: Ripe hazelnuts.