The Woolly Sunflower is a common attraction along the Trinity River corridor and watershed. In our area, viewers can see it in a few different varieties split between high and low country. The low country version is found in large colonies exposed to dry and hot conditions. Viewers commonly see it along roadsides defying logic by clinging to rocky cliffs showing off their sweet yellow pedals and silvery leaves and stems.
Photo of a patch of Common Woolly Sunflower taken near Burnt Ranch, generously provided by Veronica Yates.
Eriophyllum lanatum is a perennial herb native to western North America. It has long, thin stems with small pinnately lobed, green leaves and small, yellow flowers. When you get up close and personal you notice a few unique characteristics. Prior to the bloom, the tips of the flower buds turn a sweet reddish purple and the silvery color of the stem and underside of the leaves is actually a layer of tiny hairs. These hairs serve a specific purpose for the plant and act to conserve water by reflecting heat and reducing air movement across the leaves surface [1]
Photo: taken at the Oregon Gulch Restoration Site. E. lanatum was a part of the seed mix dispersed post restoration as part of the revegetation efforts by Hoopa Valley Tribal Fisheries. Photo generously provided by Veronica Yates.
This perennial plant’s bloom is prolific and prolonged typically beginning in March and lasting sometimes into August making it of special value to native bees, butterflies, and other important pollinators who are attracted by the bright yellow sunflower-like pedals. Due to this wildflower’s showy nature as well as its excellent tolerance to drought, it makes for a terrific addition to cultivated butterfly gardens. It can be propagated by seed, cuttings or by inquiring to purchase from your local nursery [2].
The woolly sunflower has been recorded to be used by the people of the Miwok tribe (California) to sooth aching parts of the body by making a poultice of the leaves; the Skagit (Washington) rub the leaves on skin to prevent chapping; and the Chehalis (Washington) use the dried flowers as a love charm [3].
Freshwater mussels are considered to be one of the most sensitive and threatened aquatic species within Northwestern watersheds. In North America, there are 297 known freshwater mussel species. Nearly three-quarters of these are considered imperiled, and more than 35 species have gone extinct in the last century. Eight species are known to exist west of the Continental Divide. Mussels have a fascinating life history strategy, which involves parasitizing on fish during their larval stage, and can live to be over 100 years old. They are considered an indicator species, like the good ole canary in a coal mine, as they require pristine water quality to thrive.
Photo Credit: Western pearlshell Mussel photo by Roger Tabor USFWS
Life History, Strategy and Anatomy
To the unknowing eye, freshwater mussels look very similar to saltwater mussels as they are both bivalves, meaning they have 2 shells connected with a hinge. They are also both filter feeders and both belong to the class Bivalvia in the phylum Mollusca. Despite being named and shaped similarly, saltwater mussels, are however more closely related to oysters and scallops than they are to freshwater mussels, and thus have developed different evolutionary strategies. Saltwater mussels use a byssus thread to attach themselves to underwater structures, while freshwater mussels use a foot to move short distances and bury themselves. There are also differences in their sexual reproduction strategies. Saltwater mussels reproduce by ejecting the sperm and the eggs into the water column, where they fertilize and develop. With freshwater mussels, on the other hand, the sperm is ejected into the water column and inhaled by a female mussel downstream. The egg is then fertilized within a special part of the female mussel’s gills, and she exhales the baby mussels (called glochidia) after they are developed.
All freshwater mussels have:
a hinge, which connects the two shells
a raised, rounded area along the dorsal edge called, a beak
a foot used for motion and feeding
a thin sheet of tissue that envelopes the body within the shell, called a mantle
and inhalant/exhalant features along said mantle
Some mussels have pseudocardinal teeth, which are short, stout structures below the beak. There are many more features with very technical names, but these are the most useful anatomical structures for identification in our region.
Western pearlshell mussel (Margaritifera falcata)
In the Trinity River, there is one confirmed species of freshwater mussel – the Western pearlshell mussel (Margaritifera falcata), which have very prominent pseudocardinal teeth. The Klamath River has also documented populations of the Western ridged mussel (Gonidia angulata), which have an obvious ridge on the outside of the shell, and floaters (Anodonta spp.) which are small and have neither teeth nor ridges.
Check out this article from the Mid-Klamath Watershed Council to learn more about Klamath’s freshwater mussels.
Photo Credit: Klamath River mussel bed above Rock Creek on 7-5-18. Mid-Klamath Watershed Council.
Western pearlshell mussels are known as being the longest-lived and slowest-growing mussel species in North America. In fact, they are the oldest freshwater invertebrates in the world. Their age can be estimated by counting the growth rings on their shells, similar to the growth rings on trees. The black, concentric rings are thought to represent winter rest periods. Some Western pearlshells have been documented to live over 100 years, meaning that some of these mollusks may have been in our river since it was buzzing with dredgers and mining activity in the early 1900s.
Western pearlshell mussels. Akimi King/USFWS
The foot on freshwater mussels aids in movement, but mussels are still very limited in their ability to transport throughout a stream. In order to colonize different parts of a river system, particularly upstream, after being released by the female as described below, the larvae (called glochidia) attach to fish passing by becoming parasitic. In the case of the Western pearlshell, the glochidia are released into the water where they clamp onto the gills of salmonids (particularly chinook salmon and steelhead) to hitch a ride upstream. After a short period (typically between a week and a month), the glochidia drop off into existing mussel beds (see the diagram borrowed from the Mid-Klamath Watershed Council).
Similar to salmonid migration, in which the salmon return to their natal stream, mussels can identify ideal locations to drop from their host and landing in existing beds of freshwater mussels. This life stage is one of the most fascinating aspects of this species. Originally the larval stage mussels were thought to be an entirely different parasitic invertebrate species yet scientists recently realized they are actually freshwater mussels in an immature life phase. Other species of mussels may parasitize different parts of their host fish, with some sending worm-like tendrils into the fish’s gills to sap vital resources. However, it is not thought that the mussels have a significant impact on the health of their host fish.
Pearlshell species can release their glochidia in aggregates, called conglutinates, which are bound by mucus. They seem to reproduce in spring and summer, though few studies have been conducted on the life cycle of our Western pearlshells. Though there is no scientifically defined relationship between water temperature and spawning (due to a lack of study), it has been observed in a study conducted in the state of Washington that mussels in warmer waters spawn earlier than those in cooler waters.
Freshwater mussels have many benefits to stream ecology and have a major influence on the aquatic food web. They are filter feeders and they have separate orifices for inhaling and exhaling, which is how they derive nutrients. They filter tiny, suspended particles, including sediment, algae, bacteria and zooplankton out of the water column. Some of these particles are bound to larger particles within the mussels and expelled, where they sink to the bottom and feed benthic macroinvertebrates. Individuals in some species of freshwater mussels can filter up to 15 gallons of water per day, reducing turbidity and improving water quality. This cycling of nutrients also supports the growth of emergent plants, fostering a riparian habitat that benefits salmonids, which mussels are dependent upon. To be cliché, it’s all connected.
An example of a high-density freshwater mussel bed in the Trinity River near Junction City.
Freshwater mussels also help increase the exchange of nutrients, including oxygen, between sediments and the water column, in a similar mechanism to earthworms in the soil. They increase sediment porosity and allow the sediment to retain more organic matter. This ultimately improves the quality of aquatic habitat, allowing for a higher diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates.
Though not known for being a delicious treat to humans, mussels are an important food source for otters, raccoons and skunks. Healthy mussel populations are unaffected by natural predation, but low populations may be at risk of extirpation, and overly high populations may encourage excessive predator populations.
Trinity River Mussel Surveys and Conservation
In 2020, the Bureau of Land Management conducted a qualitative study of freshwater mussels on the Trinity River. A crew surveyed the upper 40 miles below Lewiston Dam and identified mussel beds as high, medium, and low density, and marked their locations on a map. This effort helps inform necessary conservation actions on project sites. If a mussel bed is known to be directly or indirectly affected from restoration activities, the Best Management Practice is to relocate a percentage of the population to an existing mussel bed upstream of their current location.
Mussels were relocated from a TRRP project in 2017 to an existing mussel bed. The green tags are for monitoring relocation success.
Relocation of freshwater mussels can be a tricky business. The species are incredibly sensitive to temperature and water quality conditions, so efforts must be conducted with efficiency and special care. It’s important to avoid moving mussels during certain times of the year when they are the most sensitive, which is when they are in their reproductive stages between December and July.
Mussels being tagged as part of a relocation effort on a TRRP construction site in 2017
The long lived and sensitive nature of freshwater mussels is one reason it’s important to manage the Trinity River for long term impacts. Since mussels cannot move quickly to escape suboptimal conditions, their population fluctuations can reflect cumulative effects of environmental conditions, so studying and understanding freshwater mussels can be indicative of some aspects of riverine health. Despite being rather uncharismatic and tremendously understudied, the role that freshwater mussels play within aquatic ecosystems is invaluable.
There are various native plant species that cover the surface of stagnant or slow-moving water. One of these species is called water fern (Azolla filiculoides). Not to be confused with algae, Azolla is an aquatic vascular plant with a very shallow root system that grows on the water surface rather than in the water column. True to its name, it is a type of fern. Typically, the plant is bright or dark green, making the water appear to be covered in “pond scum”, but this plant is anything but scum. As a stress reaction, Azolla can turn a deep red-amber color, appearing dead or dormant. Despite the discreet and unassuming nature of this unusual plant, it has some mind-blowing properties, including the ability to purify water and fix nitrogen.
Azolla populating the slow waters at the Oregon Gulch Restoration site 2023. [Veronica Yates, Hoopa Tribal Fisheries Department]An example of Azolla showing deep-red an indicator and reaction tostress at Oregon Gulch in January 2024. [Elliot Sarnacki]
Nitrogen is often a limiting nutrient for primary producers because atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is not readily utilized by plants. As a result, many plants (such as those in the pea family, Fabaceae) have evolved the ability to “fix” nitrogen by converting it to an accessible form of nitrogen (NH4+). Some plants do this with the help of bacterial partners, as is the case with red alder (Alnus rubra) and specific bacteria, which partner to produce root nodules. In return for providing a home, the actinomycetes share some of their usable nitrogen with the red alder. While this activity occurs in the roots of the host plant, excessive nutrients are leaked into the surrounding environment, thus providing bioavailable nitrogen to other plant species and improving soil fertility within the red alder ecosystem. Instead of partnering with a bacteria like red alder does, Azolla has a symbiotic relationship with a cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) species called Anabaena azollae. The Anabaena is housed within the leaves of Azolla, and in return, Azolla receives fixed nitrogen which is ultimately shared with the surrounding environment.
In addition to being able to contribute nutrients to the environment, Azolla has the ability to uptake metals as well as organic and inorganic pollutants from water. This process, known as phytoremediation, can take place via 4 different mechanisms. I’ll exclude the chemistry details here, but the important takeaway is that this little plant can extract toxic pollutants from water. Researchers are investigating the use of this plant in wastewater treatment facilities. There are countless more benefits and potential applications of Azolla to modern human civilization – including the potential to split water molecules and create energy. Azolla is endlessly interesting.
So how does Azolla affect our ecology here along the Trinity River? By covering slower moving bodies of water like ponds and backwater areas, it helps regulate water temperatures and provides habitat for cover-loving species. By the same mechanism, it also decreases habitat for mosquitos. It also serves as a food source for a wide variety of wildlife, from western pond turtles to waterfowl. These properties, combined with the ability to fix nitrogen and remove pollutants from water, make this easily over-looked water fern an important constituent of riparian and aquatic habitats.
Since the foundational 1999 Trinity River Flow Evaluation Report, decades of scientific research have poured into improving outcomes for Salmonids, both from within the Trinity River Basin and from rivers researched across the world. The cumulation of data has made scientists within the Program increasingly aware that shifting how the Program uses restoration flow allocation has the potential to lead to stronger and more resilient juvenile salmonids.
Survey crews monitoring the interaction between high flows and recently restored floodplain on the Trinity River in April of 2023.
Restoration releases continuing through late spring and into the summer keep water colder than optimal for juvenile salmon growth. With size of outmigrating salmon strongly tied to their survival in the ocean, the correlating smaller sized salmon has led scientists to question if a change in management actions would benefit juvenile salmon. Further, Program scientists have figured out that greater than 60% of young chinook salmon have already left the restoration reach by the time spring restoration releases start to interact with restored habitat created by the Program over the last 18 years. River restorationists believe that if floodplains and side channels can get wet when more juvenile salmon are in the upper river to use them, then they can take advantage of all the extra food that those habitats create and if the water meets a range of ideal temperatures for these cold-blooded creatures, they will grow faster.
A partial implementation of an initial proposal to shift a portion of the annual restoration flow allocation earlier in the year occurred in the winter/spring of Water Year 2023 (partial because only elevated baseflows were implemented. The synchronized pulse flow component was not implemented); in September 2023, Program scientists proposed the same action for Water Year 2024 to the Trinity Management Council indicating to the Council that the proposal was the best available science in improving results for salmonids. Unfortunately, the TMC requires near unanimous votes to approve actions and failed to approve that proposal, with six votes in favor and two opposed. However, all was not lost. A group including Trinity County brought in a retired USFWS biologist to review the proposal and findings from the Water Year 2023 and offered to work with program scientists to craft a proposal that was perceived to be less problematic for late winter/early spring river-based recreation and its associated economic benefits. Parties worked together busily behind the scenes, and the revised winter flow proposal will be presented to the TMC at a special meeting on Jan. 18. If approved, modestly increased winter base flows would begin in February.
The North American Beaver (Castor canadensis) is a true riparian specialist that is fairly common in the mainstem Trinity River below Lewiston Dam. Beavers attracted some of the first European explorers to the Trinity watershed, notably Jedediah Smith, who along with other mountain men traded with local tribes for beaver pelts in the early 1800s.
North American Beaver (Castor canadensis)
The fur trade led to the demise of beavers throughout North America, but they are making a strong comeback following the decline in demand for them. Beavers are still rare in Trinity River tributaries, especially streams draining the high meadows of the Trinity Alps. One of TRRP’s partners, the California Department of Fish and Wildlife, is making a concerted effort to restore beavers because their dam building and other behaviors benefit so many other species (https://wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Mammals/Beaver). Perhaps because Lewiston Dam releases are so consistent, beavers do not build dams on the mainstem Trinity River, and in the Klamath Basin they rarely build lodges. Instead, they dig burrows in steep banks along the river.
Photo Credit: US Fish and Wildlife Service National Digital Library
In the wild, beavers can live for 10-12 years and reach weights of over 40 pounds. They like to live in colonies consisting of an adult pair and their offspring from previous years. These colonies tend to be distributed every mile or so along rivers and streams where the habitat quality and connectivity is good.
If you live near the river and are concerned about beavers falling your riverfront trees, it is a good idea to wrap the trunks with chicken wire to discourage beavers from gnawing on them. Otherwise, the work that beavers do is beneficial and appreciated by a wide variety of animals, including Coho salmon, willow flycatchers, deer, and humans.
James Lee grew up near Redding, Ca, but his heart has always been in The Trinitys, where he chased tadpoles, salmon, deer, and gold nuggets for much of his youth. This love of the outdoors turned into an interest in managing fish, wildlife, water, timber, and other natural resources.
River flows continue to be released from Lewiston Dam at the summer base flow of 450 cubic feet per second. Upper and lower river temperatures have continued to trend lower than 2022 and remain “optimal” (50F-65F) for spring salmonids holding in the river. Numbers of fish trapped in the JC weir have gone on a downward trend indicating that spring run steelhead and salmon are working their way up river and the fall run are holding.
River enthusiasts will see a rise in flows due to tribal trust agreements between the Hoopa Valley Tribe and the Bureau of Reclamation. Beginning Aug. 18 flows will gradually increase from the summer base flow of 450 cfs and are expected to reach a peak flow of 2,000 cfs on Aug. 20 before gradually returning to summer base flows later in the week. The Bureau’s official press release can be found here.
The Restoration Program continues work with partners at Oregon Gulch, north of Junction City. The project has moved into phase II which calls for channel reconstruction and in-river work. Trained technicians are on site monitoring turbidity to permitted levels. Anglers and river enthusiasts should expect moderately turbid waters downstream of the site. If traveling on the river, please follow signage as navigation pathways may have changed.
Workers at Oregon Gulch stand near the upper river entrance on August 9 2023. Photo Credit: Kiana Abel, Reclamation
Monitoring of fish health continues throughout the summer at the Junction City weir by several partner agencies. As of August 2, temperatures were recorded between 59F and 62F (in range for optimal temps). Fish trapped at the weir are still showing evidence of past gill infections, however they are “less than trace or healed” and seasonally the infection rate is holding in the 20% range. This is still higher than years past and the fish health alert will be held to a “yellow” cautionary level.
California buckeye (Aesculus californica) is a fast-growing species that grows below 4000 feet in dry slopes, canyons, and stream edges. Various species of buckeye grow throughout the world, but this is the only species that grows in California. Here in Trinity County, it seems to prefer the cooler and wetter parts of the region, mostly growing downriver towards Willow Creek or along moist riverbanks. They are a summer deciduous species and start to lose their leaves as early as July, turning crinkly and yellow and creating a seasonal stand-out display amongst the surrounding green riparian foliage.
Described as either a small tree or a large shrub, California buckeyes usually have multiple, gnarled trunks with smooth grey bark. One of the earliest riparian trees to leaf out in the spring, they ornately decorate the still dormant riparian area with large, dark green, palmately compound leaves. Soon thereafter, impressive clusters of whitish-pink flowers explode from the backdrop of tropical-looking leaves. Each cluster is primarily composed of male flowers, but towards the tip are a few functionally female flowers. This means that though each inflorescence contains several dozen blooms, they only manage to produce 1-2 seeds, which are rather large and somewhat resemble chestnuts (hence one of this plant’s common names, “horse chestnut”).
Buckeye seeds are known for being toxic to non-native bees. This is due to a neurotoxic glycoside called aesculin, which causes hemolysis (rupturing) of red blood cells. This not only affects hive species like honeybees – who take the pollen back to the hive and inadvertently poison their own queen – but it also affects humans and fish, causing symptoms like diarrhea, muscle weakness, lack of coordination and even paralysis. Thanks to coevolution, native bees and pollinators are unaffected by aesculin and savor the sweet nectar and pollen.
Native Americans have a cultivated relationship with buckeye seeds. In the Hupa language, the word for buckeye is la:whe’, and the seeds are believed to be a food of the pre-human immortals (k’ixinay). With significant preparation (including repetitive leaching, boiling, and pounding), the seeds become edible as flour or meal, similarly to acorns.
California buckeyes are drought tolerant, fast growing, and highly effective reproductively, making them extremely well adapted to their environment. To propagate some on your own property, simply take a seed and plant it about 1” deep – it will rapidly develop a large and robust taproot and can grow up to 10” a year, making a lovely landscaping attraction.
California hazel (Corylus cornuta subsp. californica)
California hazel is a native shrub that grows in the moist shade of forest understory and riparian areas. The leaves are soft and fuzzy, and fall off during the winter (deciduous). During the winter months, the plants produce male flowers, called catkins, along with quaint red female flowers on the same plant. Once pollinated, the female flowers will very slowly develop into a pair of seeds. The seed husks are extremely bristly (like fiberglass) and have long beaks to them, giving this plant one of its common names, “beaked hazelnut”.
Hazelnuts don’t ripen until the later summer/early fall, and often, just one (or none) of each pair will make it all the way to maturity. Hazelnuts are tantalizing food stuffs for an assortment of critters, from insects, to small rodents, to birds, to large mammals. Humans are no exception – native hazelnuts roasted on the woodstove make a delicious winter treat. To harvest, however, we humans have to use our wit to outcompete the hungry critters, who will devotedly devour every hazel in sight if given the opportunity.
The historical relationship between humans and hazels is much more multi-faceted than mere consumption. Native Americans who share a range with this plant, including the Hupa, Yurok, Wintu and Chimiariko tribes have long utilized hazels in basketry and fiber-making. In the Hupa language, there is a different word for each of these applications. K’ila:jonde’ translates to ‘hazel’ or ‘hazelnut’, while tł’ohsch’il’e:n means ‘hazel brush switches’ or ‘hazel bush’. If separated from the plant, a hazel stick itself is referred to as miq’ik’itł’oy’, and the verb for twisting a hazel withe to make it flexible is k’iq’e:n.
California hazels are just one of the important characters that constitute our local flora; healthy ecosystems are comprised of a great diversity of native plant species. Stay tuned to learn more about local native plants and their ecological roles!
Photo top left: A hazelnut growing on the shrub. An unfertilized/undeveloped hazelnut is seen on the left.
Photo top middle: This old, twisted hazel branch would not be suitable for basket making.
Photo top right: An unripe hazelnut has been knocked onto the ground, but amazingly has not been consumed yet.
Photo bottom left: An immature hazelnut that has been foraged by local wildlife.
On June 16, The Bureau of Reclamation and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service announced 11 projects totaling $6 million to be awarded as part of three Klamath Basin Salmon Restoration grant programs and 4 of the 11 aforementioned projects will be administered in the Trinity River watershed. The 4 projects selected will improve aquatic habitat by reducing fine sediment delivery, improving fish passage, and pursuing increases to tributary flows in the dry season in tributaries of the Trinity River. We congratulate the grantees and are excited to see the outcome of each project. Please read below to learn about each grantee, proposal and award amounts. To find the full Klamath 2023 Grant Slate from the NFWF website, please click here.
Deadwood Creek Sediment Reduction Project (CA) Grantee: Northwest California Resource Conservation & Development Council Grant Amount:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $98,900 Matching Funds:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $5,800 Total Project Amount:. . . . . . . . . . . . $104,700 Prevent sediment delivery to Deadwood Creek, a major tributary to the Trinity River, to improve anadromous salmonid habitat. The project will remove legacy mine tailings from Mill Gulch, decommission Thorne Gulch Road, install and enhance 12 rolling or critical dips, remove abandoned vehicles and debris from stream channels and floodplains, install a gate to prevent further damage and build stream enhancement features in Thorne Gulch.
Photo: Deadwood Creek after the Carr Fire in 2018. (TRRP)
Douglas City Community Services District Feasibility Study for Fish Habitat Improvement in Trinity River Tributaries (CA) Grantee: Watershed Research and Training Center Grant Amount:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $78,800 Matching Funds:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $5,600 Total Project Amount:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $84,400 Assess the economic feasibility of creating and maintaining a community services district (CSD) to provide a stable water supply to residents in rural Douglas City (Trinity County, California) to leave water instream for improved habitat connectivity for steelhead, coho and Chinook salmon in Browns and Reading creeks, tributaries to the Trinity River. The project would assist in determining if a CSD is an economically viable option to achieve environmental and community benefits under an increasingly dry climate.
Map provided by Watershed Research and Training Center.
East Weaver Creek Dam Removal and Intake Relocation Phase II (CA) Grantee: Northwest California Resource Conservation & Development Council Grant Amount:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $120,600 Matching Funds:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $0 Total Project Amount:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $120,600 Remove a complete barrier to aquatic species including the threatened Southern Oregon/Northern California Coast coho salmon and restore fish passage to approximately 2.5 miles of cold-water habitat. The project will enable upstream fish migration for all life stages of all fish species in East Weaver Creek, tributary to the Trinity River.
Photo of the East Weaver Creek Dam provided by Northwest California Resource Conservation & Development Council.
Indian Creek Fish Passage Barrier Removal Feasibility Project (CA) Grantee: Yurok Tribe Grant Amount:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $184,800 Matching Funds:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $11,000 Total Project Amount:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $195,800 Evaluate conditions that create a barrier to anadromous fish passage throughout a reach of Indian Creek, a tributary to the Trinity River, with a constriction point in the Indian Creek valley. The project will create a shovel-ready project to remove a significant barrier to fish passage and reopen 7.5 miles of stream and 85 acres of habitat suitable for threatened Southern Oregon/Northern California coast coho salmon, among other aquatic species.
Photo of the Indian Creek restoration area provided by the Yurok Tribe.
